Religious Migration of Ritualistic Mask Dances of North East

Ayantika Chakraborty

Research Scholar, Department of Folklore Research, Gauhati University

E-mail:ayantika.rhea@gmail.com

Abstract

North East India is an entrepot of mask dances. The region has an immigrant population from Tibet, Myanmar, Nepal, and ‘mainland India’. Consequently, the population practices Buddhism of both Theravada and Mahayana schools along with influences of magico- animism and Bonism as part of indigenous religious belief system. Not only Buddhism but also Neo-Vaisnavite school of Hinduism has domination over a few states of North East. This varied practice of religion has subjugated the mask dances of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim. Therefore, the paper intends to explore the migration of ritualistic mask dances of the North East with their religious significance. The paper examines the significance of religion in color scheming, motif and character-making. Moreover, textual, contextual and textural settings will also be studied.

Keywords: Mask Dance, Religion, Belief system, Migration, North East India

Introduction

Mask dances are an integral part of the folk-dance tradition of India. Although, Chhau has got exclusive attention as a mask dance because of getting inscribed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, 2010 but there are many more to be explored in Eastern and Northeastern India (UNESCO). This paper documents a few selected mask dances of Northeast India which have got little or no attention. Northeast has always been considered as a piece of land that is unrelated to the so-called ‘Mainland India’ for its geographical isolation, demographical difference and linguistic unfamiliarity. The region is enriched with a variety of mask dances. The reason behind this diversity of mask dance is the history of migration of the inhabitants in this region. North Eastismainly dominated by Hinduism, Christianity, Buddhism, Islam, Bon-ism and Animism. Apart from animism, all the major religions have a history of migration from neighboring states and countries. This paper will study the dominance of religious significance in these dance forms through the characters, texts and colour scheme. The paper relied on secondary sources like reports published by Government organizations, blogs, books and scholarly journals. The paper will restrict itself to a fewselected masked dance forms of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim to conduct in-depth research.

Religion in North East India

North East India is a colossal palate of various religious assimilations. Though the region is dominated by Hinduism but other religions like Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism prevail here. As per the 2011 Census of India, Northeast India is dominated by 54.02% Hindu population followed by Islam with 25.05%, Christianity with 17.24% , Buddhism with 1.3%, Sikhism 0.07%, Jainism 0.07% and other religions 1.97%. (Census of India,2011).

Table.1.

Religion wise population of Northeast India (Census of India 2011)

Therefore, among these seven states, Assam has the highest population of Hindus, Sikkim leads with Buddhist population and Arunachal Pradesh leads in the category of ‘other religion’ population. However, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh both have a more or less equal Buddhist population, but the two states differ from each other in the case of the school of Buddhism. Sikkim mainly follows the Tibetan sect of Buddhism which is called Mahayana, whereas Arunachal Pradesh has Buddhists who follow Theravada Buddhism which hails from South Asian countries like Myanmar and Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Sri Lanka (Kumar 44) (Shah 2,19,24). On the other hand, the ‘other religion’ mainly denotes the tribal religions who are either animistic or have a deep influence of Bon-ism.

Keeping this religious diversity in mind, a mask dance form called Bhaona which has typical Hindu Neo-Vaisnavite influence has been selected from Assam. Dance forms with strong influence ofMahayana Buddhism and a little influence of Hinduism have been selectedfrom Sikkim and Theravada Buddhism, Bon-ism and Animism influenced dance forms have been selected from Arunachal Pradesh.

The nullity of Islam and Christianity in influencing the mask dances of Northeast can be seen despite both the religion having prevalent dominance in the region. The reason behind this nullity is that both Islam and Christianity believe in monotheism (Hawting 28). They believe in formlessness (Nirakarbad) which eventually defies the presence of God in the form of a mask or character of a masked dance. To be precise, Christianity deals with two sects, Cathedral and Protestant. The Protestant section believes in complete formlessness. The Cathedral section, though worships the idol of Jesus but they consider him as the ‘Son of God’ as it is said in both Old and New Testaments (Rashid). However, the idolatry is there but that does not go for god which finally suggests the formlessness of god. In the case of Buddhism, no gods are worshipped and the religion can be called as Non- theistic. Buddhism is a spiritual path based on the teaching of Buddha (Herbrechtsmeier). As Mahayana Buddhism is said to be derived from Bonism, some tribes have converted to Buddhism but still practice animistic shamanism, a pantheistic cult embracing the belief that all beings in the universe have souls (Philips & Lieberman). Buddhists also believe in supernatural elements like ghosts, ogres, evils, etc. which can be witnessed in various forms of masks.

Influence of Hinduism

The mask dance of Assam can be counted as a theatrical tradition as well. Assam has an influence of Neo-Vaishnavism in every sphere of culture as the Sankaradeva, the great reformer of Assam, shaped the cultural milieu of the state. Sankardeva believed in EkSharana Naam Dharmaor complete submission to one supreme lord (Mahanta 160). In the year 1482, Sankardevawent for a pilgrimage to Puri, Mathura, Dwarka, Vrindaban, Gaya, Rameswaram, Ayodhya, Sitakunda and many more prime sites of Vaisnavism. He received a Bhagavat Purana from Jagadisha Mishra of Tirhut, Mithila(Assam Info). The great Neo-Vaishnavite saint of Assam, SrimantaSankardeva started a religio-cultural movement in the 15th century, amidst the chaos and disintegration that prevailed in Assamese society at that time which included various communities within Assam under one philosophy of life with a systematized code of conduct and religious practice. To fetch all the communities under one religious belief system characters like Krishna and Rama were given a humanly heroic status so that the audience can relate with the supreme lord Vishnu and his mortal incarnations (Mahanta, 187). A theatrical tradition called Bhaonabased on the Ankiya Nat was developed by SrimanataShankardeva. Bhaona has abundant use of the mask as a performance prop. The text revolves around the stories like ‘KaliyaDamana’, ‘VipraPtniPrasada’, ‘Keli Gopala’, ‘Rukmini Harana’, ‘Rama Vijaya Nat’, ‘Cihna Yatra’, ‘Janma-jatra’ and ‘Kangsa-badha’ which are different mythologies from Bhagavata Purana and Ramayana (PhookanBorooah& Begum 3-4). Consequently, the characters of these plays are Hindu mythology and epic centric, like Bramha, Hansa, Garuda, Ganesha, Jatayu, Ravan, Kumbhakarna, Taraka, Maricha, Subahu, Putana, Chakra Vat, KaliyaNaagm, Bakasura, Hanuman, Jambuban, Baraha, Aghasura, Dhenukasura, Batsasura, Narad, Simha etc.

 In the context of character making of the mask, gods who are considered as the hero of the myths like Krishna, Rama and Lakshmana do not wear masks in Bhaona. Other mythical divine characters with zoomorphic features like Ganesha, Jatayu, Jambuban and Hanuman wear the mask so that the zoomorphic camouflaging can be represented. John Emigh advocated that Kiritimukha which translates as visage of glory is the dominant aesthetical expression of mask in India as it is believed that the demonic faces ward off evils (Emigh 21). The prevalence of Kiritimukhacan be seen in Bhaonamasks as well.In the case of color scheming, as Hinduism considers white as a color of purity so the masks of god are usually colored in white. The human characters and some demi-god characters like Naradaare painted with flesh color to prove their similarity with the human whereas the Ogres, Devils, Ghosts etc. are painted with dark blue or black. The color black represents negativity, evil and destruction in Hinduism whereas blue represents poison. When it comes to the significance of color scheming in Hinduism, according to Bhagavada Gita, Lord Krishna talked about triple gunas. He advocates,

“Purity, passion and inertia – these Gunas, qualities, O mighty armed, born of Prakriti, bid first in the body of the embodied, the destructible” (Fosse XIV/5).

“Knowledge arises from Sattva; greed from Rajas; heedlessness, delusion and also ignorance arise from Tamas” (Fosse XIV/17).

Each creation on earth has to have these three gunas. The qualities or gunas are represented by three colors, which are white, red and black. The three gunas are Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. The white color symbolizes sattva which signifies harmony and purity. Rajasstand for energy and passion which is represented by the colorred and tamas signifies inertia or ignorance which is symbolized by black. Thus, the mask of god which is the representative of sattva guna is painted with white and evils, ogres etc. carries tamas guna which is represented either by black or dark blue (Datar& Murthy 214). Mask color of human characters is colored with flesh or yellow colour to keep the mask neutral and human alike. On the other hand, the demons are also painted with red sometimes that though represents passion but in a negative way. Another fact which should not be overlooked is the influence of religious belief in the text (Zaman). Unlike Buddhism, Hinduism believes in the slaying of evil and not transforming them. It can be seen that not a single character of Bhaonahas been through transformation rather the evils, demons and ogres are all slain by the Hindu mythical heroes like Rama, Krishna or Lakhsmana.

Influence of Thai Religious System

The Thai religious system is a syncretism of Theravada Buddhism, Brahmanism and magico-animist beliefs and rituals (Kitiarsa 462). Theravada is a path of Buddhism that originated from SouthEast Asia. Theravada means the “Doctrine of the Elders”, which is the school of Buddhism that draws its scriptural inspiration from the Tripitaka, or Pali canon (Barua). According to the Chinese Buddhist Encyclopedia, Theravada promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada“teaching of analysis”. The Thai magicoanimism sector contains a large, changing and sometimes contradictory body of belief. This belief system includes various natural and supernatural elements as the spirit deity (Piker 385).

In Arunachal Pradesh, Tai Khamtitribefollows the Theravada school of Buddhism along with the Tai religious belief system. Tai Khamti, a sub-group of the Tai ethnic communities who are the original residents of Hkamti Long, Mogaung and Myitkyina regions of Kachin state and Hkamtidistrict of Sagaingdivision of Myanmar. In India, they have settled mainly in Namsai district and Changlang district of Arunachal Pradesh. Though fewer in numbers, they can also be found in Assam and possibly in some parts of China. Khamtis have a population of 140,31 out of which 129,25 live in Arunachal Pradesh and 11,06 in Assam. However, in Myanmar their total population is estimated at 200,000 people (Tripathy&Raha 591). Being a part of the Tai community, they believe in magico-animism. Presently, they have converted into Theravada Buddhism but the ancient animism and magico-animism practices still prevail. Khamti mask dances are the best example to prove their belief in animism in amalgamation with Theravada Buddhism (Ames 21-52). Many of their dances are animism-centric and reflect a greater belief in homeopathic magic (Nathalang 3) (Chautang&Chaturvedi). For the purpose of study three mask dances of Tai Khampti tribe have been selected, which are –  i) Ka KingnaraKingnari, ii) Kaa Toe and iii) KaaPhaiPhai

1. i) KaaKingnaraKingnari is a mask dance form where humans dress up as a half human and half peacock which establishes their belief in zoomorphism. The dance is slow and gracious in movement. It is a Buddhist belief that mythical half-human and half-peacock had been in existence in the Himalayas. In South-east Asia, the two most popular mythical creatures are half-human, half-peacock creatures which are named as Kinnara and These mythological creatures are believed tobehailedfrom the Himalayas and considered as the guardians of humans in crisis. These characters are also mentioned in the Adi Parva of the Mahabharata, where they say:

“We are everlasting lover and beloved. We never separate. We are eternally husband and wife; never do we become mother and father. No offspring is seen in our lap. We are lover and beloved ever-embracing. In between us we do not permit any third creature demanding affection. Our life is a life of perpetual pleasure”(Stream of Stories).

They are also featured in several Buddhist texts, including the Lotus Sutra (Kubo &Yuyama 4,14,16,54). In Southeast Asian mythologies, Kinnaris, the female counterpart of Kinnaras, are described as half-bird, half-woman supernatural beings. In Hindu mythology, Kinnara is described as half-man, half-horse, and half-bird. The Vishnudharmottara Purana describes Kinnara as half-man and half-horse, but the Buddhist texts recognize them as half-man and half-bird (Shah). In Jataka no. 481 and 504 mentions of the Kinnaras can be found (Francis & Thomas, 348).

Tai Khamtis also believe in themselves as the protector of the mountains and treat them as the demigods. As it has been told earlier, keeping the function of homeopathic magic in mind, they dress up like the Kinnaras and Kinnaris who are theprotectors of mountain.

ii)Kaa Toe: According to Buddhist myths, deer-dancing (kaa-toe) takes place in October (Nuen-Sip-Eit). The dance contextually signifies festival of the light on the text of the spirits of mortals greeting ovation to Lord Buddha on his return after his preaching is complete. It is also associated with thanksgiving to the Lord’s mother and other spirits. Thus, the Ka-Toe or Deer Dance can be claimed as a part of Buddhist belief and religion in nature.

iii) Kaa Phi Phai :- ‘Kaa Phi Phai’ in Khampti language translates as the demon dance in English. It is performed in the context of social and religious occasions (Golden Pagoda). The text of Kaa Phi Phai is about the myth of Lord Buddha’s attainment of enlightenment or Nirvana. The dance showcases Mara’s innumerable attempts to disrupt Buddha’s meditation in which he ultimately failed. Kaa Phi Phai denotes the victory of the sacred over the profane which in totality supports the motive of the study that religion is a significant factor to shape the mask dances of North East India (Golden Pagoda). In contrast, there is another myth associated with Ka fifai or Kaa Phi Phai. In this second myth, a ghost kidnaps girls and men of a state and the minister of the state on order of the king captures the ghost and brings him to the court. In court the ghost apologizes and promises to not do the mischief anymore(Banerjee, 89). Even in this myth, the influence of Buddhism reflects very prominently. The ghost who could have been slayed very easily in the court of the king had been released and forgiven. Evil went through a transformation from bad to good which is the basic canon of Buddhism.

Influence of Bon-ism

Monpa, the only nomadic tribe of Arunachal Pradesh as well as the entire North East practices Mahayana school of Buddhism but their religious belief system reflects Bon-ism to a great extent. The reason behind this could be their origin history beyond Changselung. It has been observed that the Monpa language which is spoken in Tawang has a similarity with the CuonaMonpa language that is spoken in southeastern Tibet (Blench 1). Being a nomadic tribe Monpasacculturated themselves with different ethnic group and consequently, the dialects that Monpa tribe speak has similarities with Dzala, Thangla, Dukpa, Monke which comes under East Bodishlanguage which comes under the Tibeto- Burmese Language family (van Driem, 2007). Similarly, due to their nomadic nature and assimilation of Bon religion and Buddhism, animism has occupied a predominance over their religious belief system. To understand the influence of Bon-ism, the Peacock and Lion Dance of the Monpa tribes will be studied in the paper. In this dance form, men dress up as peacocks and lions wearing head and body masks. The text of this mask dance form revolves around a legend which is –

“There was a renowned saint named ‘Tenteling’. He went on top of a mountain called ‘Gangrikarpo’ somewhere in the Himalayas for meditation. He meditated there without food and drink for three years. On the ridges of the same mountain there dwelt two snow lions. The snow lions were very much surprised to see a saint meditating continuously for three years, completely isolated from the other world. The Lions visited the saint and offered their milk for his survival and became intimate friends. The people heard about this unique relationship between human and animal and they went to see him. Everyone was very much impressed by the service rendered by the animal to this godly human being. After the completion of the meditation, they all in happiness danced together and the almighty showered all the prosperity in the area thereafter” (Tawang Festival).

Traditionally the ‘lion and peacock dance’ signifies the fact that prosperity comes to this world when there is complete harmony and co-operation among all living beings on this earth but there is more to it. In the Bon religion, the God of wisdom meditates on the lotus flower like the Buddha in Buddhism. His throne is supported by a square pedestal and is guarded by a dragon, Garuda (a bird), elephant, lion, horse and peacock (Krishnamurthy). This makes the significance of the peacock and lion in the Bon religion lucid. Both the bird and the animal are considered as the guard or the protector as the lion protected the saint Tenteling.  Moreover, the peacock in the form of the Kinnaris also considered as the protector of the Himalaya. So, this mask dance form reflects the convergence of both Bon Religion and Buddhism among the Monpa ethnic group.

Influence of Mahayana Buddhism

The entire concept of Buddhism originated by defying the oldest form of Hinduism in the 5th Century BCE as a part of the Shramana movement. Contradictorily, Buddhists claimed that they are the ‘true brahmins’ (Schmidt-Leukel). This validates the inter-relation between Brahmanism and Buddhism. Mahayana Buddhism is widely practiced all over India. Therefore, the majority of the mask dance forms from North-Eastern states reflect the heavy influence of Mahayana Buddhism. The Mahayana school of Buddhism hails mainly from Tibet, Japan, China and Korea. The Sanskrit word “Mahayana” means great vehicle (Learman 7). To establish that the Mahayana school of Buddhism influences the mask dance up to great extent, Achi Lamo and Bardo Chham dance of Arunachal Pradesh will be studied.

1. i) AchhiLhamo dance: AjiLhamu or AchhiLamu is a folk dance that originated and evolved amongst the Monpa tribe. This group dance includes masks of animal and many other theatrical props. The text is the Tibetan version of the Hindu epic Ramayana. There are mainly five characters in this dance drama. Nyapa is the protagonist and Nyao is the antagonist. Lhamu and Lhumare two female characters and Gyeli is the king. The characters have a mythological origin. Lhamu is a fairy from heaven who came to earth and later became the queen of This dance form portrays the grand ceremony of the wedding of King ChhoegeyNorzang and Lhamu. This dance form is performed during the Losar festival (Government of Arunachal Pradesh).

The text itself suggests the influence of the Tibetan Royal family and myths associated with them. The textual plot has similarities with the Ramayana. Consequently, the Mahayana Buddhism and obscure morals and values of Hinduism also get reflected through theAchhiLhamu.

ii)Bardo Chham: This form of Chham is mainly practiced by the Serdukpen tribes of Arunachal Pradesh. Serdukpen tribe is influenced by both the Aka and Monpa tribes. This tribe follows the Mahayana school of Buddhism of the Gelugpa sect. The term Bardo Chham stands for ‘Dance of Zodiac’. This dance form involves 12 animals which Sherdukpens believe the evil forces. They believe that there are evil forces and good forces which dictatemankind. Through this dance form, they eradicate the evil forces and establish the good ones (International Chamber for Service Industry 6).

Now, what makes this dance a representation of Mahayana Buddhism is the arrangement of animals. Rat, ox, tiger, rabbit, dragon, snake, horse, sheep, monkey, fowl, dog and pig are the twelve animals that are portrayed as the characters of this dance form through the mask. If the Chinese Zodiac cycle is taken into consideration, the exact same arrangement of animals in their zodiac cycle can be witnessed (Merritt 1-12). It is widely knownthat China follows the Tibetan school of Buddhism that is Mahayana Buddhism, in similaritySerdukhpens also follow the same Mahayana school. It is assumed that the zodiac calendar prevailed even long before Buddhism came into the picture (Japanese Buddhist Statuary). They believe that Buddhism got inspired by the twelve animal zodiac cycle and this zodiac cycle is basically a reflection of the predominance of animism but at the end, contemporarily, this zodiac cycle is an integral part of Mahayana Buddhism which cannot be found in South East Asia where they practice Theravada school of Buddhism.

iii) KagyedChham: Kagyed which is also called MahakalChhamis a dance which is widely practiced in Sikkim. This dance is mainly practiced by the Lamas of monastery. The presence of Mahakala can be seen in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Hindus believe that Mahakala is a manifestation of Shiva whereas Buddhists believe that Mahakala is not a god but a protector who protects the state from the evil forces. He is believed to be the husband of Kanchendzonga, the guardian deity of Sikkim. In this dance form, animals are treated as evil forces and Mahakala, as the protector from the evil. Through this dance form, the Mahakalatransforms the evil powers into good forces (Saha).

Buddhism is prevalent in this mask dance form for the inevitable reason of beingperformed by monks. But there also remains an obscure influence of Hinduism. Moreover, Buddhism is believed to be derived from Hinduism. Sikkim is dominated by the Hindu population. So, despite not being performed at the time of Dussera, locals in this Hindu majority state call this Kagyed dance Dussherafor its textual similarity to the annihilation of evil. Contrarily, As Buddhism does not approve of slaying of any creature, a transformation of the evil to the good being can be seen in Kagyed whereas as Hinduism approves demolition or slaying of evil, so the slaying of Ravana, a representative of evil force takes place (Saha).

Conclusion

The article can be concluded with the claim that religion is an inalienable agent associated with mask dance forms. All of the eight dance forms discussed in this article either reflect the influence of prevailing religion prominently or in an obscure waythrough the mask or the myth.As conceptualized in Myth Ritual theory, rituals and myth operate together (Segal 1). Justifying that, most of the ritualistic performances are derived from religious mythologies. According to Merrill, the ritual mask is a potent mythological and spiritual symbol qua art when judged by aesthetics criteria (Merrill 29).The study validates this claim by examining how most of the masked dance forms are associated with religious mythologies and the how the aesthetic of the masks reflect the religious significance in characters. Moreover, the tribal communities used to practice animism before getting syncretizedinto other classical religions. Thus, a strong influence of animism is bound to be there. Moreover, the Northeast holds a long history of migration which has contributed to acculturation and convergence of many religions in these dance forms. These mask dances are valuable evidence of the transformation that came in religions of these regions due to syncretism. Even convergence of religio- cultural aspects can be seen in various dance forms like Mahakala dance of Sikkim, Tai Khamti dances and many more.

Works Cited

Ames, Michael M. “Magical-Animism and Buddhism: A Structural Analysis of the Sinhalese Religious System.” The Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 23, 1964, pp. 21–52. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2050620. Accessed 22 Feb. 2021.

Assam Info. SrimantaSankardeva or MahapurushaSrimantaSankardeva, http://www.assaminfo.com/famous-people/47/srimanta-sankardeva-or-mahapurush-srimanta-sankardeva.htmAccessed on 19 Feb.2021

Banerjee, Projesh. Indian Ballet Dancing. New Delhi: Abhinav Publication, 1983.

Barua, Kanak Baran. “Theravada Buddhist Forum in Jinghong city (xishuangbana, yunnan province)”.Topic On Theravada Buddhism and World Peace,2015

Bascom, William R. “Four Functions of Folklore.” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 67, no. 266, 1954, pp. 333–349. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/536411. Accessed 21 Feb. 2021.

Blench, Roger. Sorting Out Monpa: The Relationships of the Bodic Languages of Arunachal Pradesh. Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation, Cambridge, 2012, p.1.

Census of India, Primary Census Abstract (All the North Eastern States), Registrar General of India

Chautang, Nang Sulina& Chaturvedi, Shivam, “Impact of Therawada Buddhism in the Traditional Belief of Tai Khamti of Arunachal Pradesh, India”, International conference on Thai studies globalized Thailand? Connectivity, conflict and conundrums of Thai studies.Chiang mai, Thailand, 15-18 July 2017.

Datar, Shilpa & Murthy, C. “Combination of Trigunas in Different Groups of People.” Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology. Vol. 38, no.3, 2012, pp. 214-219

Emigh, John. “Dealing with the Demonic: Strategies for Containment in Hindu Iconography and Performance”, Asian Theatre Journal, Vol. 1, no.1, 1984. pp.21-39

Fosse, Lars Martin. The Bhagavat Gita The Original Sanskrit And An English Translation, Library Congress, 2007

Francis, H.T & Thomas, E.J. Jataka Tales Selected and edited with introduction and notes, Cambridge University Press, 1916, p.384

Golden Pagoda, “Dance forms of Tai Khamti”, Dance. https://goldenpagoda.in/about/dance-forms-of-tai-khamti, Accessed on 21 Feb, 2021

Government of Arunachal Pradesh, “ Art& Culture”, Tawang, https://tawang.nic.in/art-culture/

Hawting, G.R. “John Wansbrough, Islam, and Monotheism.” Method & Theory in the Study of Religion, vol. 9, no. 1, 1997, pp. 23–38. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/23555623. Accessed 21 Feb. 2021.

Herbrechtsmeier, William. “Buddhism and the Definition of Religion: One More Time.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, vol. 32, no. 1, 1993, pp. 1–18. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1386910. Accessed 21 Feb. 2021.

International Chamber for Service Industry, Proposal for Dance and Music Troupe, p.6

Japanese Buddhist Statuary, “Zodiac Calendar & Lore”, https://www.onmarkproductions.com/html/12-zodiac.shtml, Accessed on 22Feb, 2021

Kitiarsa, Pattana. “Beyond Syncretism: Hybridization of Popular Religion in Contemporary Thailand.” Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, vol. 36, no. 3, 2005, pp. 461–487. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20072671. Accessed 22 Feb. 2021.

Krishnamurthy, K. Mythical Animals in Indian Art, New Delhi: Abhinav Publication, 1985.

Kubo, Tsugunari. &Yuyama, Akira.“ The Lotus Sutra Translated from the Chinese of Kumarajiva”, Taisho. Vol.9, No. 262, Numata Center for Buddhist Translation and Research, 2007, pp. 4,14,16,54

Kumar, Bimalendra. “A Study of Buddhism in Sikkim.” Bulletin of Tibetology, Seminar Volume, Gangtok :Namgyal Institute of Tibetology, 1995

Learman, Linda. Buddhist Missionaries in the Era of Globalization, University of Hawai Press, Honolulu, 2005, p.7

Mahanta, Pona. “The Theatre of Sankardeva”, The Blessed Island A Selection of writings on Majuli and the Neo- Vaisnavite Movement in Assam, 2013, p.160

Mahanta, Pratap Jyoti.“Sankardeva And The Artistic Expression Of The Neo- Vaisnava Movement in Assam: An Overview”, The Blessed Island A Selection of writings on Majuli and the Neo- Vaisnavite Movement in Assam, 2013, pp.186-193

Merrill, Michael S. “Masks, Metaphor and Transformation: The Communication of Belief in Ritual Performances”, Journal of Ritual Studies, Vol.18, No.1, 2004, pp 29

Merritt, Christopher. “The Animal World in China: A Cross Cultural Perspective”, pp.1-12, https://www.g-casa.com/conferences/singapore12/papers/Merritt.pdf. Accessed on 21 Feb. 2021

Nathalang, Siraporn. “Khamti Buddhism and Culture An Observation from a Visit to KhamtiLand in Arunachal Pradesh in 2006”, Shan Buddhism and Culture, 8-9 December 2007. School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS),University of London: SOAS Center of Buddhist Studies and The Shan Cultural Association, University of London, 2007

Philip & Lieberman, Marcia R. “Brief introduction to basic concepts of “tibetan” buddhism.”, 2003, http://dl.lib.brown.edu/BuddhistTempleArt/buddhism.html, Accessed on 21 Feb. 2021

PhookanBorooah, Indranee& Begum, Jerina. “Bhaona, the Traditional Theatre Form of Assam, as an Instrument for Developing Moral Values”.IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science, vol.19, issue.7, 2013, pp. 04-05

Piker, Steven. “The Relationship of Belief Systems to Behavior in Rural Thai Society.” Asian Survey, vol. 8, no. 5, 1968, pp. 384–399. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/2642320. Accessed 22 Feb. 2021.

Rashid, Ungaran. “Jesus (pbuh) as “son of God”: A Biblical Study Based on the Jewish Scriptures and the Gospel of Matthew”. 3. 41-64. 2020

Schmidt-Leukel, Perry. “Facets of the relationship between Buddhism and Hinduism”, Interview by Frank Usarski, Revista de Estudos da Religião, 2007

Segal, Robert A. “The Myth and Ritual Theory : An Overview”, The Journal of Jewish Thought and Philosophy, Vol.6, 1997, pp.1-18

Shah, Bipin. Spread of Buddhism and Hinduism in southeast Asia and beyond, 2017, pp. 2 -24

Shah, Priyabala. Shri Vishnudharmottara A Text on Ancient Indian Arts, Ahmedabad: The New Order Book Co. 1990

Stream of Stories, “Kinnaras”, 2014, https://streamsofstories.wordpress.com/2014/12/29/kinnaras/  Accessed on 21 Feb. 2021

Saha, Anirban, Kagyed Festival &Chham Dance in Ralang Monastery, 2015 https://www.anirbansaha.com/Kagyed-festival-ralang-monastery-cham-dance-in-ralang-monastery-sikkim/ Accessed on 22 Feb. 2021

Tawang Tourism, “Tawang Festival”, Find Glocal, Tawang, Arunachal Pradesh,2020. http://www.findglocal.com/IN/Tawang/808097452593537/Tawang-TourismAccessed on 21 Feb .2021

Tripathy, Biplab&Raha, Subhechha. “Khamptis of Namsai: The Saga of Legend And Tradition”, International Journal for Creative Research Thoughts, Vol.6, Issue.2, 2018, p.491

UNESCO. Representative List of Cultural Heritage of Humanity, 2010. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/chhau-dance-00337, Accessed on 6 Feb. 2021

Van Driem, George. “Dzala and Dakpa form a coherent subgroup within East Bodish, and some related thoughts”, 2007.

Zaman, Arifur, “Anthropological study on mask of natunchamagurisatra of majuli district jorhat Assam.” PhD Dissertation submitted to Department of Anthropology, Gauhati University, 2009

[Volume 4, Number 1, 2021]